Genetics is the study of hereditary traits (heredity) and all the scientific intricacies. People
who are considered the "Father of Genetics" Gregor JOHAN MENDEL.Orang
is the first study the properties inherited from decreased sperm cells
are Haeckel (1868). Blendel studied heredity in pea plants (Pisum
sativum) on the grounds: 1. Having couples menyolok.2 properties. Usually pollinate themselves (Self polination) .3. Can be easily held silang.4 pollination. Immediately generate keturunan.GALUR vanetas PURE is made up of a homozygous genotype. The
symbol "F" (= Filium) said derivative, being the symbol "P" (=
Parentum) states induk.HIBRIDA (Bastar) are the offspring of
cross-pollination with different properties -> if a different
character called MONOHIBRIDA, if the two properties difference is called DIHIBRIDA dst.DOMINAN are traits that appear (manifest) in the offspring. RECESSIVE are traits that do not appear to descendants.
Mendel hypothesized
• Each of the properties of living organisms is controlled by a pair of "heredity". At that time Mendel belummenggunakan term "gene". • Each pair of heredity shows another alternative form, the two alternate forms called ALELA partner. • One of pasangam alela was dominant and the recessive alela close when both exist together. • In formation " gametes "alela be separated, each gamete receives one such factor c alela known as Mendel or PRINCIPLES LEGAL SEPARATION IS FREE segregation. • PURE INDIVIDUAL alela have the same two (homozygous), given the dominant allele symbols uppercase letters are the recessive allele is a composition keciLGENOTIP heredity (does not seem physically). phenotype is a trait that appears on a hybrid or polihibrida keturunan.Pada apply PRINCIPLES assorting independently.
RATIO phenotype (F2) HYBRID NORMAL BY Mendel
Monohibrida3: 1 (Law of Dominance full) n = 1, the number of gametes = 2Dihibrida 9: 3: 3: 1n = 2, the number of gametes = 4Trihibrida 27: 9: 9: 9: 3: 3: 3: 1 n = 3, the number of gametes = 8Polihibrida (3:1) nn = n, the number of gametes = 2n
(N) = different types of properties (hybrid). Intermediate 1: 2: 1 -> properties "DOMINANT SAME"; experiments on magi Antirrhinum flowers.
CROSS BACK -> F2 with the marriage of one of indukaya.TEST CROSS ---> F2 with the marriage of the parent or individual who is homozygous recessive IRREGULARITIES false LAWS MENDELSebenarnya still follow the laws of Mendel ---> --- allele berinteraksi.Dikenal some bentulc > F2 phenotype ratio)
A. PAIR INTERACTION ALELA the varieties of chicken -> 9: 3: 3: 12. POLIMERI (Nielson-Echle) on wheat varieties -> 15: 1Polimeri pigmentation in humans such events kulit.3. KRIPTOMERI the plants 'four' (Mirabilis Jalapa) experiments on Linaria maroccana ---> 9: 3: 44. Epistasis and hypostasis in wheat varieties ---> 12: 3: 1 5. KOEPISTASIS on Lathyrusodoratus ---> 9: 7 (Lathyrus odoratus = varieties of seed sweet peas)
POLIMERI is heterozygous crossbreeding with many different properties that stand alone, but affect the same part of a bastardization organisme.KRIPTOMERI is heterozygous with the nature of the "hidden" (Kriptos) is influenced by a state, in maroccana Linaria flowers is cell water pH ! epistasis is a cover factor of the nature of the appearance of other properties although these properties are covered by a factor dominanHIPOSTASISadalah lain.ATAVlSME factor is the nature of the hypostases in an offspring that appear on a seat back (reappearence).
Chromosome Genes
Chromosomes is the thread structure in the cell nucleus that is responsible in terms of offspring (heredity). Chromosomes are the creatures SPECIAL hidup.GEN is "the substance of heredity," located in the kromosom.Gen are among others: - As a separate matter contained in the chromosomes. - Contains genetic information. - To duplicate themselves in the event of cell division.
A pair of chromosomes is "homologous" each other, meaning that the locus containing the corresponding genes, called ALELA.LOKUS is dedicated to the gene location in kromosom.ALEL DOUBLE (MULTIPLE alleles) is the presence of more than one allele at the same locus.
Recognized two types of chromosomes, namely: 1. Chromosome loss (Autosomal) .2. Sex chromosome / chromosomal sex (Gonosom). THOMAS HUNT MORGAN is a geneticist from the United States which found that hereditary factors (genes) are stored in a specific locus in kromosom.Percobaan for this is done on fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) by reason of as follows: - Quick breed, - Easily obtained and maintained, - Quickly becoming an adult (age 10-14 days was de ~ adult), - fly females lay many eggs, - Only has 4 pairs of chromosomes, so easily researched.
Patterns of early HEREDITASOrang explore the patterns of heredity is the WS Sutton of Sutton United Serikat.Menurut when the genes that control two different properties located on the same chromosome, the genes can not be letting themselves freely especially when the genes were adjacent locus, it will tend to always separate jointly. This event is called LINKAGE (Links). There are times when the chromosomes are separated not carry all the genes that are owned but only partially met the remainder borne by the partner chromosome. This event is called CROSSING-OVER (MOVE CROSS). Incident was investigated by Morgan.
Sex Determination and Sex Links (Sex Lingage)
Sex determination is a determination of the sex of an organism is determined by sex chromosomes (GONOSOM). For the fruit fly is known that 1 pair of sex chromosomes X chromosome and chromosome Y.
Male individuals occur if there are XY sex chromosome composition if the composition XX females. This is the opposite occurs in the BIRD XX while males are XY females.
SEX Links is an inherited trait is incorporated in gonosom.Sebagai example is the red eye female fruit flies (dominant) male fruit flies mated with white eyes (recessive) -> F1 all red-eyed. But in all that white-eyed F2 males. This suggests that the nature of "white-eyed" is a nature trail on the Y chromosome that
Sex linkage by THOMAS HUNT MORGAN dipelejari.
Nondisjunction is the failure events of sex chromosome separation during cell division -> was first studied by CALVIN B. BRIDGES.
GEN is a lethal gene that causes the death of an individual (in vivo) if the alleles of these genes are in a position of "homozygous".
Mutation
MUTATION is the change in the gene from its original form -> individuals who have a mutation called a mutant.
TYPE OF MUTATION, CHROMOSOME MUTATION, namely changes in the composition or number of chromosomes that cause changes in individual properties commonly known as aberration
- GENE MUTATIONS that changes in genes on the chromosomes (the location and nature) that caused the changes in individual properties without changing the number and arrangement of chromosomes commonly called MUTATIONS only.
Scholars who study the mutation is HERMAN MULLER (pupil Morgan). Mutations in the plants studied by Hugo de Vries.
MUTATIONS CAUSE-8EBAB
NATURAL MUTATIONS for example due to cosmic rays, natural radioactivity that is generally recessive and detrimental. MUTATIONS MADE for example by X-ray
No human heredity
As we all know there are two types of chromosomes and autosomes GONOSOM, so genetic diseases in humans as well there are two reasons, namely: - Caused by an autosomal disorder. - Caused by abnormal gonosom.
Sex determination in humans is also determined by X and Y chromosome Because the number of human chromosomes is typical yeitu 46 pieces (23 pairs) consisting of 22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair gonosom, then the formula is a human chromosome-For males is 46, XY, or can be written as well as 44 + XY. - For the woman is 46, XX or 44 + can be written also be able to obtain XX.Rasio for boys or girls are the same, namely 50% or (0.5). caused by an autosomal genetic disease in humans is usually "recessive" means that in the homozygous state reveal new recessive diseases such as: - Albinisma, - Polidaktili, - mental disorders - Diabetes mellitus, - dsb.Ada diseases are caused by autosomal mutations, for example: - DOWN SYNDROME (SYNDROME MONGOLID = trisomy 21) -. -> + 21, SYNDROME PAATAU autosomal (Trisomy 13) -> + 13, SYNDROME autosomal EDWARDS (TRISOMI18) -> + no.18 autosomal-syndrome "CRI-DU-CHAT" -> no deletions. Which are caused genetic 5Penyakit gonosom: - Abnormalities of chromosome formula (due to non-disjunction events). Eg, a. TURNER SYNDROME (45, XO). B. Klinefelter syndrome (47, XXY; 48, XXXY). C. Syndrome SUPERFEMALE / TRIPPLE-X or Trisomy X (47, XXX). D. SUPERMALE (47, XYY). - Since the origin of sex (sex linkage) a. X-linked (recessive) that is color blind (green and red) and Hemophilia -> in men are "ALL OR NONE".
b. Y-linked (recessive in males only) such as "hairy-PINA" (hypertrichosis).
Multiple alleles of human events -> type darah.AUGUST Weisman -> Selection of events with the experimental cuts up to 20 generations of rats, the tail remains panjang.APLIKASI EUTENIKS -> is a social improvement through alteration lingkungan.APLIKASI Eugenics -> is an improvement society through the use of the principles of heredity.
Modern Genetics
As the substance of heredity now known as nucleic acids, namely: • ADN (Deoxiribose Nucleic Acid). • ARN (Ribose Nucleic Acid). DNAterdiri of the two bands are mutually twisted (DS = Double Stranded DNA-DNA) Þ is called the 'DOUBLE HELIX " the model was first created by JAMES D. WATSON (United States) and FRANCIS CRICK (UK) in 1953, improved the model by doing TRANSCRIPTION WILKINS.Jika DNA is single stranded form (SS-DNA). DNA is composed of many NUKLEOTIDA.BATU "nucleotide" CONSIST OF-A molecule of sugar (in this case is "deoxyribose" or "ribose"). - One molecule of phosphate. - The nitrogen base molecules (nitrogen bases consist of two types, namely) a. Þ and GUANIN.b purine adenine. Þ pyrimidine thymine, cytosine and URASIL.Satu sugar molecule and a molecule called basa "nucleoside"
source:
Mendel hypothesized
• Each of the properties of living organisms is controlled by a pair of "heredity". At that time Mendel belummenggunakan term "gene". • Each pair of heredity shows another alternative form, the two alternate forms called ALELA partner. • One of pasangam alela was dominant and the recessive alela close when both exist together. • In formation " gametes "alela be separated, each gamete receives one such factor c alela known as Mendel or PRINCIPLES LEGAL SEPARATION IS FREE segregation. • PURE INDIVIDUAL alela have the same two (homozygous), given the dominant allele symbols uppercase letters are the recessive allele is a composition keciLGENOTIP heredity (does not seem physically). phenotype is a trait that appears on a hybrid or polihibrida keturunan.Pada apply PRINCIPLES assorting independently.
RATIO phenotype (F2) HYBRID NORMAL BY Mendel
Monohibrida3: 1 (Law of Dominance full) n = 1, the number of gametes = 2Dihibrida 9: 3: 3: 1n = 2, the number of gametes = 4Trihibrida 27: 9: 9: 9: 3: 3: 3: 1 n = 3, the number of gametes = 8Polihibrida (3:1) nn = n, the number of gametes = 2n
(N) = different types of properties (hybrid). Intermediate 1: 2: 1 -> properties "DOMINANT SAME"; experiments on magi Antirrhinum flowers.
CROSS BACK -> F2 with the marriage of one of indukaya.TEST CROSS ---> F2 with the marriage of the parent or individual who is homozygous recessive IRREGULARITIES false LAWS MENDELSebenarnya still follow the laws of Mendel ---> --- allele berinteraksi.Dikenal some bentulc > F2 phenotype ratio)
A. PAIR INTERACTION ALELA the varieties of chicken -> 9: 3: 3: 12. POLIMERI (Nielson-Echle) on wheat varieties -> 15: 1Polimeri pigmentation in humans such events kulit.3. KRIPTOMERI the plants 'four' (Mirabilis Jalapa) experiments on Linaria maroccana ---> 9: 3: 44. Epistasis and hypostasis in wheat varieties ---> 12: 3: 1 5. KOEPISTASIS on Lathyrusodoratus ---> 9: 7 (Lathyrus odoratus = varieties of seed sweet peas)
POLIMERI is heterozygous crossbreeding with many different properties that stand alone, but affect the same part of a bastardization organisme.KRIPTOMERI is heterozygous with the nature of the "hidden" (Kriptos) is influenced by a state, in maroccana Linaria flowers is cell water pH ! epistasis is a cover factor of the nature of the appearance of other properties although these properties are covered by a factor dominanHIPOSTASISadalah lain.ATAVlSME factor is the nature of the hypostases in an offspring that appear on a seat back (reappearence).
Chromosome Genes
Chromosomes is the thread structure in the cell nucleus that is responsible in terms of offspring (heredity). Chromosomes are the creatures SPECIAL hidup.GEN is "the substance of heredity," located in the kromosom.Gen are among others: - As a separate matter contained in the chromosomes. - Contains genetic information. - To duplicate themselves in the event of cell division.
A pair of chromosomes is "homologous" each other, meaning that the locus containing the corresponding genes, called ALELA.LOKUS is dedicated to the gene location in kromosom.ALEL DOUBLE (MULTIPLE alleles) is the presence of more than one allele at the same locus.
Recognized two types of chromosomes, namely: 1. Chromosome loss (Autosomal) .2. Sex chromosome / chromosomal sex (Gonosom). THOMAS HUNT MORGAN is a geneticist from the United States which found that hereditary factors (genes) are stored in a specific locus in kromosom.Percobaan for this is done on fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) by reason of as follows: - Quick breed, - Easily obtained and maintained, - Quickly becoming an adult (age 10-14 days was de ~ adult), - fly females lay many eggs, - Only has 4 pairs of chromosomes, so easily researched.
Patterns of early HEREDITASOrang explore the patterns of heredity is the WS Sutton of Sutton United Serikat.Menurut when the genes that control two different properties located on the same chromosome, the genes can not be letting themselves freely especially when the genes were adjacent locus, it will tend to always separate jointly. This event is called LINKAGE (Links). There are times when the chromosomes are separated not carry all the genes that are owned but only partially met the remainder borne by the partner chromosome. This event is called CROSSING-OVER (MOVE CROSS). Incident was investigated by Morgan.
Sex Determination and Sex Links (Sex Lingage)
Sex determination is a determination of the sex of an organism is determined by sex chromosomes (GONOSOM). For the fruit fly is known that 1 pair of sex chromosomes X chromosome and chromosome Y.
Male individuals occur if there are XY sex chromosome composition if the composition XX females. This is the opposite occurs in the BIRD XX while males are XY females.
SEX Links is an inherited trait is incorporated in gonosom.Sebagai example is the red eye female fruit flies (dominant) male fruit flies mated with white eyes (recessive) -> F1 all red-eyed. But in all that white-eyed F2 males. This suggests that the nature of "white-eyed" is a nature trail on the Y chromosome that
Sex linkage by THOMAS HUNT MORGAN dipelejari.
Nondisjunction is the failure events of sex chromosome separation during cell division -> was first studied by CALVIN B. BRIDGES.
GEN is a lethal gene that causes the death of an individual (in vivo) if the alleles of these genes are in a position of "homozygous".
Mutation
MUTATION is the change in the gene from its original form -> individuals who have a mutation called a mutant.
TYPE OF MUTATION, CHROMOSOME MUTATION, namely changes in the composition or number of chromosomes that cause changes in individual properties commonly known as aberration
- GENE MUTATIONS that changes in genes on the chromosomes (the location and nature) that caused the changes in individual properties without changing the number and arrangement of chromosomes commonly called MUTATIONS only.
Scholars who study the mutation is HERMAN MULLER (pupil Morgan). Mutations in the plants studied by Hugo de Vries.
MUTATIONS CAUSE-8EBAB
NATURAL MUTATIONS for example due to cosmic rays, natural radioactivity that is generally recessive and detrimental. MUTATIONS MADE for example by X-ray
No human heredity
As we all know there are two types of chromosomes and autosomes GONOSOM, so genetic diseases in humans as well there are two reasons, namely: - Caused by an autosomal disorder. - Caused by abnormal gonosom.
Sex determination in humans is also determined by X and Y chromosome Because the number of human chromosomes is typical yeitu 46 pieces (23 pairs) consisting of 22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair gonosom, then the formula is a human chromosome-For males is 46, XY, or can be written as well as 44 + XY. - For the woman is 46, XX or 44 + can be written also be able to obtain XX.Rasio for boys or girls are the same, namely 50% or (0.5). caused by an autosomal genetic disease in humans is usually "recessive" means that in the homozygous state reveal new recessive diseases such as: - Albinisma, - Polidaktili, - mental disorders - Diabetes mellitus, - dsb.Ada diseases are caused by autosomal mutations, for example: - DOWN SYNDROME (SYNDROME MONGOLID = trisomy 21) -. -> + 21, SYNDROME PAATAU autosomal (Trisomy 13) -> + 13, SYNDROME autosomal EDWARDS (TRISOMI18) -> + no.18 autosomal-syndrome "CRI-DU-CHAT" -> no deletions. Which are caused genetic 5Penyakit gonosom: - Abnormalities of chromosome formula (due to non-disjunction events). Eg, a. TURNER SYNDROME (45, XO). B. Klinefelter syndrome (47, XXY; 48, XXXY). C. Syndrome SUPERFEMALE / TRIPPLE-X or Trisomy X (47, XXX). D. SUPERMALE (47, XYY). - Since the origin of sex (sex linkage) a. X-linked (recessive) that is color blind (green and red) and Hemophilia -> in men are "ALL OR NONE".
b. Y-linked (recessive in males only) such as "hairy-PINA" (hypertrichosis).
Multiple alleles of human events -> type darah.AUGUST Weisman -> Selection of events with the experimental cuts up to 20 generations of rats, the tail remains panjang.APLIKASI EUTENIKS -> is a social improvement through alteration lingkungan.APLIKASI Eugenics -> is an improvement society through the use of the principles of heredity.
Modern Genetics
As the substance of heredity now known as nucleic acids, namely: • ADN (Deoxiribose Nucleic Acid). • ARN (Ribose Nucleic Acid). DNAterdiri of the two bands are mutually twisted (DS = Double Stranded DNA-DNA) Þ is called the 'DOUBLE HELIX " the model was first created by JAMES D. WATSON (United States) and FRANCIS CRICK (UK) in 1953, improved the model by doing TRANSCRIPTION WILKINS.Jika DNA is single stranded form (SS-DNA). DNA is composed of many NUKLEOTIDA.BATU "nucleotide" CONSIST OF-A molecule of sugar (in this case is "deoxyribose" or "ribose"). - One molecule of phosphate. - The nitrogen base molecules (nitrogen bases consist of two types, namely) a. Þ and GUANIN.b purine adenine. Þ pyrimidine thymine, cytosine and URASIL.Satu sugar molecule and a molecule called basa "nucleoside"
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